Greening Landscapes Through Turnkey Projects

TURNKEY PROJECTS- A workable option for greening India
Jarnail Singh, IFS, Regional Manager [WFP], FDCM, Nagpur

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Forests are vital for our sustenance as they constitute life support systems on the Earth. Trees as such absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen in the atmosphere and hence help sequestering carbon and reduce pollution in the environment. They mitigate effects of emission of green house gases [GHGs] in the atmosphere due to rapid industrialization. In view of crucial role of forests in sustenance, Govt. of India has enunciated the national forest policy that prescribes for 1/3 of the geographical area under forest cover for meeting vital national needs and mitigating climatic and physical conditions including maintenance of hydrological nutritional balance. The principal aim of the current policy is to ensure environment stability and maintenance of ecological balance which is vital for sustenance of all life forms, human, animals and plants.
2.0 NATIONAL FORESTRY SCENARIO
As per Survey of India Report 2005, India’s forest cover is 67.70 million ha constituting 20.64% and tree cover on non forest lands is 9.17 million ha that forms 2.80% of its geographical area [328.73 million ha], respectively. The existing forest cover scenario portrays a grim but challenging situation that unfolds 26.60 million ha of culturable wastelands and 28.98 million ha of degraded forests for reclamation and rehabilitation through plantation and afforestation for improving their productivity and ecological value.
In order to achieve the goal of 33% the geographical area under forest cover, it is essential to extend tree cover beyond the traditional forest areas. To this end, Govt. of India has launched National Forestry Action Programme in 1999 that visualizes plantations to the tune of 3.0 million ha per annum for a period of 20 years for afforestation of non forest culturable wastelands and restoration of degraded forests. Programmes and schemes aiming at greening India such as Vanamahotasava, Social Forestry, Farm Forestry, Urban Forestry, Industrial plantations; National Bamboo Mission, Plantation along National Highways, Railways and Canals, Reclamation of wastelands, mining dumps etc would invariably help in achieving the national goal set forth in the policy.
3.0 MAHARASHTRA FORESTRY SCENARIO
The total geographical area of the state extends over to 30.77 million ha forming 9.36 % of the country’s total area. It has a long coastline of 720 km along its western flange. As per Census Report [2001], the population of the state is 96.87 million which constitutes 9.4% of country’s population. The rural population is 57.6 % whereas the urban population is 42.4% that elevates it to the status of a highly industrialized state in the country.
The forest cover of the state is 47,476 km2, which is 15.43% of its geographic area. The very dense forest is 8,191 km2, moderately dense forest is 20,193 km2 and open forest is 19,092 km2. Tree cover of the state is 8,978 km2, which is 2.92% of state’s geographical area. Thus, forest and tree cover of the state is 56,454 km2 constituting 18.35% of its geographic area. However, recorded forest area is 61,939 km2 which is 20.13% of state’s geographic area. As per legal status, 49,226 km2 is reserved forests constituting 79.60%, 8195 km2 is protected forests forming 13.23% and 4518 km2 is unclassed forests forming 7.31% of growing stock.
The natural forests are located predominantly along the boundaries of the state and the central part is primarily devoid of vegetation. The main forest types are Tropical Semi Evergreen, Tropical Moist Deciduous, Tropical Dry Deciduous, Tropical Thorn, Subtropical Broadleaved Hill and Littoral and Swamp Forests. The wastelands extend over to 49,275 km2 which constitutes 16% of state’s total geographical area. The statistics elucidated above emphasizes urgent need for undertaking massive afforestation programme.
In Maharashtra, there are primarily three organizations in the forestry sector namely the Forest Department, the Social Forestry Department and the Forest Development Corporation of Maharashtra Limited having distinct mandate and functions to fulfill.
The forest areas under administrative charge of the Forest Development Corporation of Maharashtra Ltd and other government agencies such as the Forest Department and the Revenue Department are given, as under.

3.0 FDCM Limited Organizational Set Up
The Forest Development Board was established in 1969 with the main objective to raise plantation of high value species in place of low value miscellaneous forests. Accordingly, large scale teak plantations were undertaken. On the basis of experience gained and recommendations of the National Council on Agriculture [1973], Govt. of Maharashtra established its own company by the name the Forest Development Corporation of Maharashtra Limited in 1974.
[i] Objectives: The main objectives of the company include, the following;
· Develop lands for forest resources by raising plantations of economically important species like teak, bamboos, khair, semal and such other suitable indigenous species.
· Raise plantations of all kind including forest plants, trees and crops and deal in forest plants, forest produce, trees, natural products etc.
· Maintain, conserve and protect plants, crops and trees raised or naturally grown on lands leased or owned by the Company.
· Maintain, protect and develop existing fauna.
· Carry out business of trees felling, logging, transport, marketing and sale of wood and other forest produce.
· Carry out business as general merchants, agents and proprietors of timber and wood based industries/firms.
· Carry out business as manufactures and dealers in products made from wood or forest produce; · Objects incidental and ancillary to main objects;
o Enter into agreement and contract with government, local authority, bodies, associations, firms, individuals, companies or organizations for technical, financial or any other assistance for carrying out objects of the Company.
[ii] Management of Affairs: As per the Indian Company Act, 1956 the management of the Company is vested in the Board of Directors. As per Articles of Association, power to constitute Board of Directors is conferred on the Governor of Maharashtra, who appoints various directors and the Managing Director for conduct of business of the Company. Board of Directors decides policy and Managing Director has been entrusted with responsibility of its implementation along with management of day-to-day affairs of the Company.
[iii] Administrative Setup & Working Area: Government of Maharashtra has leased out over 4.00 lakh ha of forest lands to the FDCM Ltd. For convenience of administration these forestlands have been organized into 5 Regions, 14 Project Divisions and one Depot Division, at Ballarshah. The staff strength is 1645, which includes 25 officers on deputation from forest and finance departments.
The Company has raised plantation of financially valuable species namely teak, bamboo, shisoo, shivan etc on over 3.00 Lakh ha of forestlands. In addition, plantations of feulwood and fruit bearing species have also been raised for benefit of the people. Recently, bamboo plantations under National Bamboo Mission have been undertaken in bamboo potential areas.
[iv] Financial Status: As per the Articles of Association, the Company has been authorized share capital of 35.00 crores. It is running in profit since 1988-89. The accumulated profit is Rs. 340.30 crores and plantation asset is of Rs. 655.90 crores. The annual outlay is about Rs 100.00 crores, which includes establishment and overhead cost of Rs 48.00 crores. In addition, it annually generates over 34.65 lakh mandays through various forestry activities and operations in the rural and remote areas.
4.0 Functions of the Company
[i] Management of Forest Systems: Management plans of 14 divisions have been prepared and approved for scientific management of forest areas. Forestry activities such as forest management, tree felling and regeneration are being undertaken annually as per approved management plans after seeking approval of Government of India, in accordance with Hon’ble Supreme Court orders. Similarly, thinning operations of old teak plantations and harvesting of bamboo is undertaken as per prescriptions of the management plans.
[ii] Raising of Plantations: Plantations of high value species like teak, bamboo, sissoo, shivan etc have been raised since its formation. Plantations raised by the company under various programs and schemes, since inception is given as follows.
· Period [1970-1987]: Teak plantations by clear felling misc. forests: 1.20 Lakh Ha.
· Period [1988- 1991]: Wasteland Development Programme: 0.30 Lakh Ha.
· Period [1992-2000]: World Bank Aided Maharashtra Forestry Project:1.20 Lakh Ha
· Period [2002- 2009]: Plantation of Teak, Bamboo and Misc. species: 0.30 Lakh Ha
[iii] State of the Art Nursery Facility: The state of the art ‘Nursery Development Unit’ has been established in 1992-93 under Maharashtra Forestry Project. The main objective of the unit is to produce large scale quality seedlings by using advanced techniques. The unit has 6 root trainer and 4 clonal nurseries with capacity to produce 73.60 lakh root trainer seedlings and 8.00 lakh clonal seedlings. These units have modern facilities like mist chambers, agro-net shed, hardening chambers, root trainers and trained staff to man these facilities. These facilities are located in Thane, Nasik, Nagpur, Chandrapur, Gondia and Yeotmal Divisions.
[iv] Collection and Supply of Quality Seed: Quality seed is essential ingredient for ensuring quality crop and hence to improve returns and productivity. To this end, a modernized seed processing unit has been established since 1992 under Maharashtra Forestry Project with the objective to supply quality seed for enhancement of productivity of plantations. The unit has been equipped with advanced facilities for collection, treatment, testing, certification and storage of seeds.
FDCM Ltd collects teak seed from identified areas of known superior quality seed and thereafter seeds are tested for germination before supply.
The Identified seed source areas available with FDCM Ltd are, as follows:
1) Seed Stands [SS] : 34 sites, 461 ha
2) Seed Production Areas [SPA]: 85 sites, 1764 ha
3) Teak Seed Orchards [TSO] : 34 sites, 107 ha
FDCM Ltd has also established capacity for production of quality organic manure especially vermi-compost from grass and shedded leaves, since 2000-2001, on commercial basis.
5.0 Turnkey Afforestation Projects
FDCM Ltd has undertaken projects of plantation and landscaping on turnkey basis since 1990 on the lands of Government Departments, Corporations, Autonomous Bodies, Public Institutions, Public Sector Undertaking etc on mutually agreeable terms and conditions. The details of turnkey projects undertaken by the company are given, as follows.
[1] In total, 235 projects costing over Rs. 2652.86 lakhs spreading over Thane, Pune, Mumbai, Nagpur, Chandrapur and Yeotmal districts have been successfully completed. More than 54.20 lakh seedlings have been planted over an area of 1810 ha under these projects. Apart from enhancing the aesthetic value of urban areas, these projects have helped in reducing pollution of mining and industrial areas.
The Region-wise information on completed and ongoing turnkey projects and plantations undertaken thereon by the company is given in the following table.

[2] There are 16 ongoing projects costing over Rs. 1219.00 lakhs belonging to 5 User Agencies that are being implemented by the Company. The agencies namely the Western Coalfields Limited, Nagpur, Air Force Vayusena Nagar, Nagpur, Indian Oil Corporation, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Mumbai, Bharat Petroleum Chemicals Limited, Mumbai, Municipal Corporation, Bruhan Mumbai, Municipal Corporation, Thane, Pimpri-Chinchwad Municipal Corporation, Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust, Mumbai, Konkan Irrigation Corporation, Film City Goregaon, Mumbai and Power Grid Corporation, Borivili, BSES Thermal Power Station, Western Railways, National Highway Authority of India etc have awarded turnkey projects to the Company.
[3] The following types of turnkey projects have been undertaken by the Company:
[i] Stabilization of Mining Dumps: These plantations have been undertaken in Western Coalfields Ltd. areas in Nagpur and Chandrapur districts. The overburden soil in mining areas is dumped on ground forming mounds. These mounds need stabilization and reclamation through afforestation. Sterile soil and sloppy configuration of these areas have been indeed challenging for the company to tackle with. Plantation of over 25 tree species have been undertaken to clothe these sites with vegetation cover. These plantations have proven successful in reducing air pollution and reclaiming soil resulting in restoration of eco-balance in the area.
[ii] Industrial Plantations
Plantations have been undertaken in the areas of Thermal Power plants at Chandrapur, BSES, Mumbai, Panvel, Dahanu etc, ONGC, JNPT, Hindustan Coca-Cola etc. Besides enhancing aesthetic value of these areas, these plantations have helped in mitigating effects of industrial pollution in and around these areas.
[iii] Landscaping and Beautification of Urban Areas
FDCM Ltd has undertaken landscaping and beautification plantation in the campus of the Film City Development Corporation, Goregaon. Landscape plantations have been created in the Film City as per requirement of film shooting locales.
· Avenue Plantation
NHAI, PanvelTree plantations along the National Highways, Railways and city roads have been undertaken by FDCM in Mumbai, Thane, Nasik and Chandrapur region to mitigate effects of air and noise pollution. Besides, mitigating pollution these plantations have helped in beautifying and enhancing the aesthetic appeal of these areas.
iv] Garbage Dump Reclamation
In urban areas garbage is often dumped in open sites which generate foul smell and create unhygienic conditions for residents living in vicinity. Garbage dump reclamation activity has been undertaken in the unban locales of Pune, Nasik, Pimpri-Chinchwad, Mumbai and Thane Municipal Corporations. Plantation of misc. species of environmental and aesthetic value has been undertaken on these sites to reduce pollution and enhance beauty of these areas.
[v] Mangrove Plantations
Mangroves are found in coastal areas and act as natural barriers against coastal erosion. Because of heavy industrialization and expanding commercial activities in the coastal areas mangroves are being destroyed. As a consequence, coastal areas have been exposed to wide-spread coastal denudation and erosion. The situation had become so alarming that the Hon’ble High Court Bombay had tointerven to impress upon the govt. to undertake coastal protection measures. Over the years, FDCM Ltd has gained expertise in undertaking mangrove plantations and has raised plantations on TMC, JNPT, ONGC areas.
6.0 Services Offered by the Company
In consonance with the Government policies and company’s objectives, the FDCM Ltd has been providing professional services to various user agencies on mutually agreeable terms and conditions on the following areas of specialization.
[i] Supply of quality seeds and planting stock for raising high value plantations.
[ii] Raise plantations around industries for mitigating effect of industrial pollution.
[iii] Reclamation of mining areas and stabilization of mining dumps.
[iv] Reclamation and development of unban garbage dump sites
[v] Landscaping and beautification of unban sites and locales.
[vi] Avenue plantations along National Highways and Railway tracks and city roads for mitigation of air and noise pollution.
[vi] Mangrove plantations for protection of coastal areas.
In addition, the FDCM Ltd offers professional services for raising type specific plantations that have potential to earn profits by accruing environmental benefits to the society.
[i] Eucalyptus Plantations: There is consistent demand for pulpwood in paper industry. Eucalyptus plantations has tremendous scope as it is used for pulpwood manufacture.
[ii] Bio-diesel Plantations: Seeds of karanj, neem, kokam, moha, Jatropha etc produce biodiesel that have potential to replace fossil fuel.
[iii] Bamboo Plantations: Bamboo is a multi-use species. It has consistent demand in construction industry, cottage industry, paper industry etc and hence has great potential.
[iv] Medicinal Plants: Market for plant based medicines and herbal product has grown exponentially and so is demand for medicinal plants.
The FDCM Ltd also offers consultancy on the above and allied areas of plantations & afforestation including;
[i] Project Appraisal
[ii] Project Formulation
[iii] Valuation of Plantations
[iv] Project Implementation.
[v] Landscaping and Beautification.
7.0 FDCM Ltd has core competence in the following areas.
[i] Silvicultural management of forests, harvesting and sale of forest produce.
[ii] Production of quality seeds for raising quality planting stock for plantations.
[iii] Raising plantations of teak and other high value species.
[iv] Reclamation of mangroves, degraded mining lands and garbage dump sites.
[v] Consultancy in avenue plantations and landscape development.
We hereby appeal you to join us in our endeavors and look forward to give us an opportunity to help you in managing your lands and translate your vision of green India into green landscapes of your dreams.

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BIODIVERSITY AFFORESTATION MODEL - APPROACH

1.0 TITLE

BIODIVERSITY AFFORESTATION MODEL– AN APPROACH [BAMA] FOR ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION OF DEGRADED FOREST ECO-SYSTEMS
Jarnail Singh, IFS, JD, Social Forestry, Nagpur, Maharashtra State, India.

2.0 ABSTRACT

Forest ecosystems with its biodiversity and landscape values constitute national natural heritage meant for conservation for posterity. To this end, national forest policy prescribes 1/3 of geographical area under forest cover and enunciates principal aim of the policy is to ensure environmental stability and ecological balance which are vital to sustenance of all life forms. Existing forest cover scenario [SFR, 2005] portrays a grim situation that unfolds vast expanses of 26.60 million hectares of wastelands and open tracts and 28.98 million ha of degraded forests for rehabilitation to improve their productivity and ecological value.

Numerous approaches are in vogue for rehabilitation of degraded forest ecosystems. Biodiversity afforestation approach tends to address ecological degradation, biodiversity conservation and landscape concerns of degraded ecosystems. Approach was developed in the Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests of Melghats, having 648 naturalized species, belonging to 97 families and 398 genera. Salient aspects of the Biodiversity Afforestation Approach are summed up, as under.
1] Biodiversity afforestation approach based on the following concepts;
i] For managing nature follow nature as model.
ii] Percepts and principles of sustainable management of forest resources.
iii] Management to conform with and enhance natural site factors.
2] Salient sequential components of approach include;
i] Assess species diversity and degradation status of site.
ii] Determine species composition and seral status of fairly undisturbed forest ecosystem, in vicinity of site.
3] Determine extent of biodiversity deficit and ecological degradation
4] Biodiversity afforestation model to address biodiversity deficit and eco-degradation.
i. Develop treatment map and plantation design for the site
ii. Implementation modalities and guidelines

The crux of the approach is to help nature restore itself in its natural form, bio-composition and ecological status. Biodiversity afforestation approach is a step in direction to find sustainable solution for rehabilitation open tracts and restoration of degraded forest ecosystems.

3.0 KEY WORDS

Biodiversity afforestation, forest ecosystem, eco-rehabilitation, sustainable forest management, sustainable solution, plantation design, species diversity, biodiversity deficit, etc.

4.0 INTRODUCTION

Natural forest ecosystems help maintain environmental stability and ecological balance and hence are vital for sustenance of life on Earth. They support and sustain varied life forms like plants, animals and micro-organisms and hence function as the storehouses of gene pool i.e. genome banks of biodiversity, an invaluable nature’s gift to mankind.

Each nation has a unique tract of evolutionary growth and so is its relation with other life forms and natural ecosystems. Plants and animals have been integral part of way of life of people and have been considered auspicious by many cultural communities, world over. Indian culture has been acknowledged as the fountainhead of the way of life lived in harmony with nature. Like an ocean or a jungle in many ways it resembles nature’s course of evolution where nature is seen in its entirety as process of creation, preservation, destruction and assimilation in the greater whole.

Prevailing forestry scenario in India portrays a grim situation that unfolds vast tracts of culturable non forest wastelands and degraded open forests for enrichment, eco-rehabilitation and restoration for improving their productivity, biodiversity and ecological health status. Numerous techniques and approaches were devised for rehabilitation and restoration of degraded forest ecosystems. However, concept of protection and maintenance of biodiversity and site factors have not been incorporated and integrated in afforestation/plantation models devised for restoration of degraded forest ecosystems. It, thus, calls for a comprehensive and holistic approach that would take care of biodiversity conservation and maintenance of site factors alongwith other objectives of plantation / afforestation programmes.

5.0 PRESENT SCENARIO [FOREST RESOURCES SCENARIO IN INDIA]

The Constitution of India provides for safeguarding forests, wildlife and natural environs as the fundamental duty of citizens and an obligatory function of the state under directive principles. Government of India through National Forest Policy, 1952 enunciated 1/3 of geographical area under forest cover for meeting the vital national needs of the nation including mitigation of climatic and physical conditions and maintenance of hydrological nutritional balance by launching massive plantation drive by involving institutions and people through vanmahotasava celebration.

National Forest Policy, 1988 of the Government of India defines the principal aim to ensure environment stability and maintenance of ecological balance which is vital for sustenance of all life forms, human, animals and plants and has outlined strategy of conservation for sustainable management of forest resources. It also embodies holistic approach in shape of essentials of forest management. It has also laid special focus on biodiversity conservation and scientific management of forests through approved working plans and has prescribed sustainable limits for exercise of rights and concessions. It recognizes role of minor forest produce for sustenance of tribal populations and their first right on it. Policy thus embodies changed worldview of nation that believes and honor right of existence of other life forms in tune with cultural ethos, embedded deeply in psyche and cultural milieu of people.

India is a vast country, extending over to over 328.73 million ha of geographical landscape, bestowed with natural beauty, uniqueness and naturo-cultural diversity. National natural heritage includes forest and tree cover extending over to 76.87 million ha, forming 23.40 % of its geographical limits. It, includes, 67.70 million ha of rich and varied forest types of distinct composition and form in the shape of forest cover and 9.17 million ha of tree cover on non forest tracts, which form 20.64 % and 2.80 %, respectively, of the total geographical area of the country [State of Forest Report 2005, FSI, GOI]. Existing forest cover scenario portrays a grim situation that unfolds vast expanses of 26.60 million hectares of culturable non forest area and 28.98 million ha of open degraded forests for enrichment, eco-rehabilitation and restoration to improve their productivity, biodiversity and ecological value.

In order to achieve this objective, in holistic way, the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India have launched National Forestry Action Programme- India, 1999 for rehabilitating degraded forests and greening culturable wastelands for improving productivity, biocomposition and ecology of stressed eco-systems. It incorporates massive plantations to the tune of 3.0 million ha per annum for a period of 20 years to afforest 29.00 million ha of non forest culturable wastelands and rehabilitation of 31.00 million ha of degraded forests.

5.1 HISTORY OF FORESTRY PLANTATION IN INDIA

The story of forestry plantations in India is as old as scientific management of forests. The earliest attempt was teak plantation, in Nilambur, Kerala, around 1840, intended for compensation of removal of teak from natural forests. The system was clear felling of natural forests followed by artificial regeneration i.e. planting. Plantations in the past were confined to a few high value commercial species like teak, rosewood, mahogany, toon, sal, etc. and that to a limited extent with objective to improve quality and productive potential of the growing stock. Subsequently, after independence, enunciation of new forest policy, in 1952, necessitated large scale plantations on degraded forest tracts and non forest wastelands for improving vegetation cover to the extent of 1/3 of geographic area and for improving productivity of forests. In 1980s, large scale plantations under social forestry scheme was undertaken to cater to fuel wood, fodder and small timber need of rural populations. In total, 28.38 million ha plantations have been raised by the end of 20th century, which is an impressive figure. However, success of plantations in term of survival, growth and yield has been far below to the potential. Inadequacies in site selection, site-species matching, nursery techniques, planting stock, maintenance, timely tending/thinning, trained staff, fund allocation, inappropriate models, etc. have been cited as causative factors for poor performance of plantations [National Forestry Action Programme-India, 1999].

The numerous approaches of plantation and afforestation undertaken in the past to enrich forest crops and to rehabilitate degraded forest areas are given, as under.

i] Pure plantations (monocultures) of species of commercial value, including teak, rosewood, mahogany, eucalyptus, pines, sal, toon, poplars etc. at defined spacing.
ii] Forest crops enrichment plantation of teak, shisham, bamboo, canes, etc. for improving crop density by undertaking plantations of commercial species.
iii] Mixed species plantation in blocks, lines and strips for improving forest cover, site factors and aesthetic value.
iv] Strip and line planting along roads, rails, canals, along the coastal tracts.
v] Plantations alongwith farm crops under tongia cultivation.
vi] Mixed species plantations in lines or in strips in urban avenues, green belts and woodlots around industries; and arid tracts to check spread of desertification.
vii] Plantation on government and community lands under social forestry and block or line plantation of fast growing commercial species on private lands under farm and agro-forestry.

All the above plantation models and approaches were objective specific and were focused on a few species of commercial value or specific utility significance. Mixed plantation models were not conclusive about the plantation design, species composition, arrangement of plantation, post plantation operations such as thinning, tending, bio-composition and form of prospective crop. As a consequence, plantations undertaken did not result in success to the desired extent and their impact on site conditions, species composition and ecology was not in conformity with surrounding ecosystems. It led to outcry and reaction from professional foresters, environmentalists and nature lovers against single species monocultures and ad hoc approaches of afforestation/plantation.

6.0 RESULTS

The following paras sum up results of some of the innovative approaches undertaken to focus and integrate biodiversity conservation aspect in forestry plantations for improving productivity, vitality and ecological value of ecosystems.

A study report on the ‘Pure and mixed forest plantations with native species of the dry tropics of Costa Rica: a comparison of growth and productivity’ indicates that native species grew better in the mixed plots. Pure plots of teak were most productive, compared to mixture of species. Mixed plantations with native species contribute more to sustainable management. Single-species plantations do not provide great range of goods and services when compared to the natural forest, mixed plantations are likely to increase range of benefits (Daniel at el., 2004).

Case studies on the effects of afforestation on biodiversity studied in Nordic countries under AFFORNORD project indicate that afforestation affects species richness of different functional groups in different ways. Number of species of vascular plants is negatively affected by afforestation. Shade tolerant plant groups replace original heathland communities. Fungi and soil invertebrates respond to afforestation with an increase in species richness. Number of bird species is similar between habitat types, but changes take place in species composition and breeding densities. Species richness of many groups can be affected by forest management (stand density and thinning regime) and choice of tree species. Afforestation strongly affects species composition in all functional groups. Some species disappear and others colonize the new habitat. It is therefore important to include strategies for conservation of biodiversity in forest planning and management in order to preserve areas that contain special habitat types or rare species (Asrun et al., 2007).
Results of ‘the early effects of afforestation on biodiversity of grasslands in Ireland’ indicate that 5 years after tree planting, there were significant changes in richness, composition and abundance of species. Vigorous grasses were more abundant in planted than in unplanted sites, as were generalist species found in both open and wooded habitats, while small-stature shade-sensitive species were less abundant. Vascular plant species richness and Shannon’s diversity index were higher in unplanted wet grasslands, than in the planted sites. Differences in biodiversity between planted and unplanted grasslands indicate that afforestation represents a threat to semi-natural habitats where distinctive and highly localized plant communities could potentially occur (Erika et al., 2008).
In tune with above studies, Biodiversity Afforestation Model-Approach [BAMA] tends to address ecological degradation, biodiversity conservation and landscape concerns of degraded ecosystems alongwith other objectives associated for afforestation/plantation. Approach was developed and implemented in Melghat forests, in Maharashtra state. Site observations carried out after 5 years, in the year 1997, indicate promising results, as follows.

i] Approach prima facie appears a bit complicated for implementation. It is however comprehensive and systematic; and was found practical and easy to operate once percepts and plantation design were demonstrated and understood by the staff.
ii] Growth of most of the species was promising and survival was more than 85 percent.
iii] Teak, Gmlina arborea and Dalbargia sisoo were conspicuous for growth and survival.
iv] Emergence of native ground flora like grasses, herbs, shrubs and climbers indicate improvement in soil conditions.
v] The overall composition vegetation represents a good mix of species, matching with its surrounding forest ecosystem thereby improving the species diversity of the site.

7.0 KEY ISSUES OF MANAGEMENT/TECHNOLOGY

7.1 HOLISTIC STRATEGY FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Over 150 years experience of scientific forestry, in India, has unfolded many concepts, systems, tools and techniques of sustainable forestry. Sustainable forestry remained illusionary, as before, probably due to reason that appropriate strategy or approach for sustainable management of forests has not been put in place for action. In view to this and to achieve policy objectives in, wholesome manner, dynamic, holistic and innovative management strategy under caption ‘Evolving holistic strategy for sustainable management of forest resources’ was evolved and put forth for management of forest resources [Singh, J. (1998) Indian Forester, Vol. 124 (6): 473-486]. The strategy is based on holistic treatment of forest ecosystem on watershed pattern and stresses site specific treatment on lines of watershed management strategy. It prescribes for natural/sustainable management by taking things and beings as they are in their natural setting. It proposes organization of micro-units into micro-watersheds and micro-watershed into ecosystems, which in turn form macro-unit of the geographical landscape. Natural units organized and aligned in defined pattern will provide natural framework for sustainable management of forest resources.

7.2 NATURE - AS MODEL TO FOLLOW

A cursory glance of our historical evolution indicates close association and harmony of our forefathers with nature. The four stage conception of life in sylvan ashrams, during the Vedic times, indicates that nature and culture were inter-twined so closely to form a universal cosmic family in the shape of Vasudevam Kutumbhkkam. Live and let live was the code of conduct for harmonious existence of various life forms. Love and respect for all life forms including trees and animals were essence of harmonious existence. Over the ages, these concepts have gone deep in psyche of people as guiding principles of way of life. Things, however, have undergone a major change with time leading to change in outlook and way of life of people which in turn is cause of stressful existence for all life forms. Wisdom of bygone era needs to be assimilated in our way of life and work-style so as to nurture harmonious relations with nature. Thus, to manage nature, follow nature as model, has been taken as basic premises for restoring degraded ecosystems to its pristine glory.

7.3 ECOLOGICAL STATUS OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM

The key issue is to assess and determine ecological status of natural forest ecosystems. The ecological status [ES] of an ecosystem/eco-site is function of edaphic factors, climatic factors, vegetation diversity and composition, including, stock density, species diversity, forest type, structure and form; and ecosystem maturity. It is determined in term of Ecological Index [EI].

In view of invariability of edaphic and climatic factors for a reasonable span of time, Ecological Index may be defined as function of forest cover density, species diversity and change, type and form of forest crops; land use extent, air/environment pollution index and other adverse influences on the site or ecosystem, as follows.

Ecological Index [EI] = f (Forest Density, Species Diversity, Species Abundance, Ecosystem Maturity, Stability, Uniqueness, Species Gain (over a period-decade)]/ [Biotic Pressure, Annual Removal, Species Loss (over a period), Pollution Index, Intensity of Adverse Influences (Natural & Manmade hazards)]

The requisite parameters such as the forest cover density, species diversity, abundance, annual removal, etc. can be computed and determined by prevailing methods and modes. For instance, species diversity and abundance may be determined by Simpson’s Index of Diversity or Shannon’s Diversity Index, and vegetation cover may be determined from density indices, etc.

Ecological Index indicates ecological health status of forest ecosystems in terms of healthy and sick ecosystems on the basis of inclusive parameters and would conform to and correlate with forest cover, species diversity and pollution, as given in, the following table.

7.4 INTEGRATING BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

In order to ensure ecological health and vitality of forest ecosystems, there is a need to integrate biodiversity conservation in afforestation/plantation models and programs at local, regional and national level. Moreover, there is a need to develop comprehensive and systematic approach and model to address this issue holistically in professional manner. In tune with holistic strategy of sustainable management of forests and assuming nature as model to unfold, assimilate and follow, the Biodiversity Afforestation Model - Approach [BAMA] was developed and implemented in the Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests of Melghats, in Amravati district of Maharashtra State.

8.0 BIODIVERSITY AFFORESTATION MODEL - APPROACH [BAMA]

The salient components of Biodiversity Afforestation Model - Approach [BAMA] have been described and summed up, as follows.

8.1 SITE FACTORS AND TOPOGRAPHY OF AREA

Site chosen for implementation of the Biodiversity Afforestation Model - Approach [BAMA] situated in compartment number 252 of the East Melghat Forest Division, which forms a part of the Melghat forests situated on the southern branch of the Satpuda Hills, extending over to 3053 sq. km. Tract is hilly and consists succession of hills and valleys with abrupt variation in altitude, aspect and gradient. The rock is basaltic of the Deccan Trap origin. Soil is deep brown to rich red or black cotton soil with varying depth. The average rainfall is 1700 mm and is received mostly between months of June and October.

8.2 THE FORESTS AND SPECIES-COMPOSITION

Melghat forests are a unique tract of the Satpuda hills, known for its topography, composition, diversity and richness of flora and fauna. They form Dry Deciduous Mixed Type and classified as Group V Tropical Dry Deciduous forests and group V-A Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests (Champion and Seth, 1968). It consists of more than 648 naturalized species belonging to 97 families and 398 genera (Dhore and Joshi, 1988). Teak is the prominent species forms 50 % of growing stock and is fairly distributed throughout forming pure teak patches. Natural regeneration is deficient. Important teak associates include Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus latifolia, Lagerstromea parviflora, Terminalia tomentosa, Garuga pinnata, Mitragyna parviflora, Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia bellerica, Madhuca latifolia, Sterculia urens, Schleichera oleosa, etc.

Under story consists of Lannea grandis, Ougeinia oojensis, Diospyrus melanoxylon, Wrightia tinctoria, Grewia tiliaefolia, Boswellia serrata, Gmelina arborea, Cassia fistula, Terminalia chebula, etc. Under story is not well defined and shrubby growth is rather sparse except Lantana camara which is very dense in most localities. Bamboos [Dendrocalamaus strictus] occur extensively and form chief under growth on moist areas. Grassy undergrowth is dense where bamboos and lantana are absent. Climbers are few and are generally confined to moist localities.

8.3 BIODIVERSITY AFFORESTATION MODEL- APPROACH [BAMA]

Biodiversity Afforestation Approach [BAMA] embodies holistic course of action to address eco-rehabilitation and restoration of degraded forests ecosystems in a well defined, sequential and planned way. It is based on the premises of sustainable management and essence of sustenance of natural ecosystems. The salient features of BAMA have been described, as follows.

A] BAMA is built on the following premises that form its foundation;
i] For managing nature and its systems, follow nature as the model.
ii] Percepts and principles of sustainable forest management.
iii] Management to conform with and enhance the natural site factors, species composition and ecological value of natural ecosystems, including, the landscape value.

B] The sequential action-components of the approach include, the following;
i] Assess and determine of tree species diversity [S1D1] and ecological status [E1I1] of site proposed for plantation or afforestation.
ii] Assess and determine species composition [S2D2] and ecological status [E2I2] of a fairly undisturbed forest ecosystem, in adjoins or vicinity of site.
iii] Determine extent of biodiversity deficit [S2D2- S1D1] and extent of ecological degradation [E2I2-E1I1].
C] Develop Biodiversity Afforestation/Plantation Model to address the biodiversity deficit and eco-degradation.
i] Develop Plantation Design and Treatment Map for the site
ii] Implementation modalities and guidelines

8.4 SPECIES COMPOSITION FOR AFFORESTATION MODEL.

i] Species composition and extent per hectare in forest ecosystem

In order to determine species composition per ha enumeration data of working plan of East Melghat Division was taken into consideration. Species composition of prominent tree species, their extent per ha and percentage composition was determined from the estimated growing stock. Name of species, its composition per ha and %age composition is given in the Table 1.

ii] Selection of species for biodiversity afforestation

For selection of species for afforestation and determining their composition and extent per ha for afforestation/plantation, species composition of the ecosystem was kept in consideration. Prime focus of the approach is that afforestation programme shall not in any way alter or change species composition of forest ecosystem but to restore, maintain and enhance biodiversity. Productivity, minor forest produce and wildlife utility aspects also require due space in species selection. Intent is to keep species and their composition more or less same as they exist in the forest ecosystem. Species selected for afforestation model and their composition per ha is given in the Table 2.

8.5 RAISING SELECTED SPECIES IN NURSERY

Species required for plantation/afforestation for a given site need to be raised well in advance to make them available at the time of planting. Many a species in the ecosystem do not respond to known propagation techniques whereas others are being slow growing need different time span to reach plantable size. There is need to establish high-tech nursery for raising selected species in adequate number for afforestation, as defined in the model. Nursery staff and manpower need training in advance propagation techniques, seed collection and treatment, raising seedling and record maintenance, etc. For purpose of plantation on the site in question 75,000 plants of 40 indigenous species were raised in Raipur nursery, East Melghat Division, in Amravati district.

8.6 DEVELOP AFFORESTATION/PLANTATION MODEL

i] TREATMENT MAP

Keeping in view floral species diversity of the site and subsequent thinning and tending operations for young plants, treatment map for biodiversity afforestation model for a site of 25 ha consisting of zone III areas in compartment number 252 was prepared. Area was divided into one ha units; each unit was further divided into 4 equal sub-units of 0.25 ha, each. Each sub-unit of 0.25 ha was assumed as minimum unit of treatment for biodiversity afforestation. Treatment Map for biodiversity afforestation of the site is given in the Figure 1.

ii] SPECIES COMPOSITION AND EXTENT IN EACH UNIT AND SUB-UNIT

Each Unit of 1 ha would have 2500 plants in total, including 1250 plants of Teak and 1250 plants of Mixed species.
Each Sub-unit of 0.25 ha would have 625 plants in total.
o Teak Sub-unit [T’s] - 600 [Teak] + 25 [Fx] = 625 plants
o Misc. Sub-unit [M’s] - 600 plants of Mixed species + 25 plants of Fruit species.
~ 450 [Mx] + 150 [MWx] + 25 [Fx] = 625 plants
Where, Mx; stands for Mixed species of general and specific utility.
MWx; stands for species of minor forest produce, medicinal, wildlife utility.
Fx; stands for Fruit species.

iii] PLANTATION DESIGN

A site of 25 ha could at the most contain 25 units of 1 ha, each and 100 units of ¼ ha, each. As per plantation design each unit was planned to have 50 % of Teak and 50 % of Mixed species. Diagonally opposite sub-units in each unit were planted with Teak at 2m x 2m spacing while other two sub-units have different Model Mixed species one in each sub unit at 2m x 2m spacing [Figure 2]. Minor forest produce and wildlife utility species were planted in each Mixed unit at 4m x 4m spacing and Fruit species were planted in the entire site at 10m x 10m spacing.

Teak and Mixed species of general and specific utility [M1, M2, --------M15] form basic species for the afforestation model. Minor Forest Produce and Wildlife Utility [MW1, MW2, ----------MW10] and Fruit species [F1, F2, ------F5] were planted in between model species as complementary species. Number of sub-units planted with Mixed species have been enumerated, in Table 3.

8.7 PLANTATION MODALITIES AND GUIDELINES

In view of comprehensive nature of the approach plantation modalities and guidelines including role and responsibility of the supervisory and field staff were developed and demonstrated to field staff, well in advance. Guidelines and modalities include, the following, in sequence.

i] Assessment of site conditions, species composition and ecological status by senior officer in the rank of the ACF or the Range Forest Officer.
Ii} Determine species composition and ecological status of the surrounding forest ecosystem by an officer not below the rank of the Range Forest Officer.
Iii} Determine biodiversity deficit and ecological degradation by the office staff under supervision of an officer of the ACF rank.
iv} Determine species for plantation and prepare Biodiversity Afforestation Model and Treatment Map by an officer not below the rank of ACF or RFO, under supervision of the DCF.
v] Instructions for nursery staff for raising selected species in defined numbers, in advance.
vi] Site preparation including division of site into units and subunits; numbering units as per treatment map, pre-plantation operations, etc.
vii] Plantation sequence and guidelines for field staff for orderly and effective implementation of Model as per Treatment Map.
viii] Post planting operations and modalities.
ix] Maintenance and upkeep of records on prescribed formats for nursery and plantation site.
x] Periodic monitoring, evaluation and review of approach and plantations.

Even though the model prescribes plantation of single species in each sub unit [0.25 ha] yet overall composition of species diversity of the site would be more or less same as composition and diversity of the surrounding ecosystem.

9.0 CONCLUSION

Biodiversity Afforestation Model – Approach [BAMA] is based upon premises that nature can best be managed by following nature as model. It also embodies principles and percepts of sustainable management of forest ecosystems on holistic framework of watershed approach and essence of coexistence with other life forms in harmony. It intends to integrate biodiversity conservation and ecological value aspects in plantation forestry, afforestation, technical modes and approaches.

BAMA dwell further and prescribes for species composition and extent per unit for plantation in shape of Afforestation/Plantation model. It also integrates specific functional species such as species of general and specific utility, minor forest produce, species of medicinal, wildlife utility; and fruit species to cater to local nutritional needs. It also provides plantation design, treatment map, spacing for various functional groups and plantation, modalities and guidelines for implementation of plantation.

Natural forest ecosystems with its diverse life forms and unique landscape characters have evolved over millions of years to its present composition, form and diversity. We know very little about their mystery and underlying processes. Any hurried intervention would have possibility of far-reaching irreversible impact on their form, composition and integrity. It is therefore imperative to prescribe limits for human endeavors in the form of management ethics or guidelines; suitable modes and mechanism like that of BAMA, so as, integrity, composition and ecological value of ecosystem shall not in any way alter or change in the process of management and use.

In view of grim forest resource scenario in India there is need to launch another green revolution to achieve task of greening India by using innovative ways and means. Approach, while integrating biodiversity conservation aspect of ecosystem management would also provide way ahead for eco-rehabilitation of vast stretch of degraded forests and wastelands that would help transform India into a strong, beautiful and green nation of our vision.

It is crucial that we should choose right and clean path to tread through nature without leaving any permanent mark on its face. We are on voyage to an unknown destination in the universe on Earth spaceship alongwith fellow life forms. We have every right to make our voyage a pleasant experience but without being a nuisance for fellow voyagers. Approach, thus, integrates life-centered worldview and cosmic vision rather than human-centered narrow view of dealing with natural ecosystems.

An old proverb says that when things are in crisis follow the nature. Nature enlightens mind, clears vision and directs action for seeking lasting solutions of problems. Hence, why in crisis, always follow the nature as model. The approach is simply a step in this direction.

9.0 REFERENCES

Anon. (1894). National Forest Policy, 1894. Circular No. 22-F, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI.
Anon. (1952). National Forest Policy, 1952. Resolution No. 13/52 F, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Govt. of India.
Anon. (1988). National Forest Policy, 1988. Resolution No. 3-1/86- FP, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India.
Anon. (2007). State of Forest Report, 2005. Survey of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India, Dehradun.
Joshi, P.P (1978). Working Plan for Melghat Forests, East and West Melghat Divisions.
Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth (1968). A revised survey of the Forest Types of India; General silviculture for India, Manager of Publication, New Delhi.
Osmaston, F.C. (1968). The management of forests. International Book Distributors, Dehradun.
Troup, R.S. (1952). Silvi-culture Systems. 2nd Ed. E.W. Jones. Oxford University Press.
Dhore, D.A. and P.A. Joshi (1988). Flora of Melghat Tiger Reserve.
Lindenmayer, David B. (2002). Plantation Design and Biodiversity Conservation. RIRDC Publication, Kingston Act, Australia.
Erika Buscardo, George F. Smith, Daniel L. Kelly, Helena Freitas, Susan Iremonger, Fraser J. G. Mitchell, Saoirse O’Donoghue and Anne-Marie McKee (2008). The early effects of afforestation on biodiversity of grasslands in Ireland. An online Publication
Daniel Piotto, Edgar Víquez, Florencia Montagnini and Markku Kanninen (2004). Pure and mixed forest plantations with native species of the dry tropics of Costa Rica. An online Publication.
Singh, Jarnail (1994). Biodiversity Afforestation Model–An approach, Indian Forester, 120(9): 860-867.
Singh, Jarnail (1998). Evolving a holistic management strategy for forest resources. Indian Forester, 124(6): 473-483.
Singh, Jarnail (1999). Forest Policy Formulation: A need to review. Indian Forester, 125(1): 72-92.
Singh, Jarnail (2000). Evaluation of system approach and its relevance in present day management: An Introspective view. Indian Forester, 126(3): 213-233.
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